Metals

"Variance" describes the four possible relationships that type rules for cores are able to have to each other. Hoon imaginatively designates these by metals. Briefly:

Covariance (%zinc) means that specific types nest inside of generic types: it's like claiming that a core that produces a %plant can produce a %tree, a subcategory of %plant. Covariance is useful for flexibility in return values.
Contravariance (%iron) means that generic types are expected to nest inside of specific types: it's like claiming that a core that can accept a %tree can accept a %plant, the supercategory of %tree. (Contravariance seems counterintuitive for many developers when they encounter it for the first time.) Contravariance is useful for flexibility in input values (samples).
Bivariance (%lead) means that we can allow both covariant and contravariant behavior. While bivariance is included for completeness, it is not commonly used and only a few examples exist in the standard library for building shared data structure cores.
Invariance (%gold) means that types must mutually nest compatibly: a core that accepts or produces a %tree can only accept or produce a %tree. This is the default behavior of cores. Cores which allow variance are changing that behavior.

A %gold core can be cast or converted to any metal, and any metal can be cast or converted to %lead.

Further Reading